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1.
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia is a multiracial country, composed of Malays (67%), Chinese (26%), Indians (7%) and others [1]. Countrymeter cites that the population of 31,136,183 million (2017) is distributed equally between males and females with 15,788,409 males (50.7%) and 15,347,775 females (49.3%) [2]. The different ethnicities can practice their own religions even though Malaysia is an Islamic country with both its King and elected Prime Minister being Muslims. Each religion has its own beliefs, cultures and traditions. All religions encourage its worshippers and believers to practice cleanliness. One of the ways is to practice recycling.
In 1993, the Government of Malaysia launched its first series of recycling programs and declared November 11 as its National Recycling Day in Malaysia, despite successive campaigns to recycle through publicity and promotional media and methods, yet public response to the programs has been disappointing as they fail to educate, create awareness and motivate the community to respond to it positively [3]. In Malaysia, solid wastes and compositions continue to increase from the high consumption of a high-density population, quick urbanization and development. Solid waste increases from 19,100 tons daily in 2006 to 33,000 tons daily in 2012. Malaysia targets a 22% recycling rate by 2020 but the recycling rate is only at 9% in 2012 [4].
Most literature finds that females tend to recycle more than males [5-9]. But little is known pertaining to the practice of the different races in a multiracial country like Malaysia except for studies by Meen-Chee, Narayanan, Omran, Mutang and Haron [7,8,10]. Is there a difference between males and females in terms of recycling practices? Are there differences among the ethnicities in their recycling behavior and is there an interaction effect of gender and ethnicity?
In addition, the perception of cleanliness-related issues has had some impact on their recycling behavior. Therefore, is there is a relationship between perceived cleanliness-related issues and the recycling behavior? These questions lead to the objectives of the study.
The objectives of the study are: (1) to determine the relationship between perceived cleanliness-related issues and the recycling behavior; (2) to compare the differences among gender groups (males and females) and among ethnicities (Malays, Chinese and Indians) on the recycling behavior; and (3) to predict the impact of the interaction effect of gender and ethnicity on the relationship between perceived cleanliness-related issues and the recycling practice.
2.
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. The Social Learning Theory
and the Recycling Culture
Building on Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, it can be expected that youths are exposed to recycling activities and information, and are rewarded for such good habits and they will feel good doing it. Thus, the likelihood of recycling and encouraging others to do so is also high. Moreover, if youths see that the Malaysian government is serious about recycling issues and campaigns, they will feel and think that they should be concerned about it too.
In a family, the mother is the first person who can be considered as the model at home, especially in recycling. As such, youths tend to follow their mothers’ good habits in practicing cleanliness through recycling.
1.1.
Cleanliness and Recycling
Cleanliness
is essential to any religion. The Islamic concept of cleanliness consists of
two aspects: physical and spiritual. As far as physical cleanliness is
concerned, it is related to the human body and the environment. Hence, it is
important for human beings to have clean souls and to lead a clean lifestyle.
In
general, recycling is defined as a process through which used materials are
collected, processed, and remanufactured and reused [13]. Recycling has been an
important aspect of an effective and efficient solid waste management system.
Recycling indirectly contributes to environmental cleanliness as the process of
recycling household wastes promotes organization in the human lifestyle. A
clean environment can be achieved by mass recycling efforts among the
public.
The most
common forms of recycling household waste are associated with materials such as
paper, plastics, glass and metal. In 1978, the plastic bottle was introduced
nationwide and consumers have increasingly embraced plastic packaging, making
plastics among the largest household waste material [14]. The burial of waste
is not a solution due to environmental consequences. Thus, widespread recycling
of waste is of crucial importance.
The
benefits of recycling are not limited to the environment but also its impact on
citizens. Waste management is one of the fastest developing industries and has
created job opportunities and economic savings. In Asia, solid waste generation
and management are becoming a major social and environmental issue due to the
rapid economic growth and urbanization. The generation of waste gradually increases
every year but recycling keeps on moving forward by increasing the percentage
of total waste being recycled [15]. However, the rate at which waste is
generated is higher than the amount it is recovered. Hence, recycling remains
today an important global issue. The onus is on the individuals, may they be
males or females, or of different ethnicities to recycle in helping to clean
the environment and to experience healthy living. Therefore, it is postulated
that there is a positive relationship between cleanliness-related issues and
the recycling behavior (H1).
1.2.
Gender and Recycling
Many
studies find that women tend to show more concern about environmental issues,
especially those related to household-oriented issues than men who are more
concerned with the community/society-oriented pro-environmental behavior [5-9].
Zelezny, Chua and Aldrich report a higher environmental behavior for women than
for men [9]. In Hong Kong female adolescents score higher than males in terms
of issues pertaining to the environmental concern [6]. Specifically, Mutang and
Haron find a slightly higher percentage of females who recycle than males [7].
This is because recycling is part of domestic chores, and that they should be
undertaken by females, especially in the Asian countries. Malaysia is no
exception. Females are labeled as homemakers and most of the house works are
entrusted to them. Hence, we postulate that gender moderates the relationship
between cleanliness-related issues and the recycling behavior. Specifically, H2
states that females recycle more than males.
1.3.
Ethnicity and Recycling
Malaysia
being a multi-racial country encourages its populace to recycle waste products
as the government has launched recycling campaigns several times.
Unfortunately, not much change has taken place. Studies by Meen-Chee and
Narayanan find that in Penang, the Chinese tend to recycle more than the Malays
[10]. Most of the city dwellers in Penang are Chinese and they do not want
their city to be dirty. This could be the reason the Chinese recycle more than
the Malays. The Indians and the Malays think that it is the responsibility of
the Penang Municipal Council, not theirs. On the contrary, Mutang and Haron
find that Malays tend to recycle more than either the Indians or the Chinese
[7]. Such findings are like Omran’s findings on the recycling of solid wastes
[8]. On a similar note, this study predicts that the difference among the
Malays, Indians and Chinese in their recycling behaviors and ethnicity
moderates the relationship between cleanliness-related issues and the recycling
behavior. Specifically, it is hypothesized that Malays tend to recycle more
than either the Chinese or the Indians (H3).
1.4.
Gender and Ethnicity on Recycling
An added
value to this study is the interaction effect of the moderators: gender and
ethnicity. Since there is no study to date that has come up with the
interaction effect of gender and ethnicity, this study postulates that
different gender and different ethnicity have different effects on the
recycling behavior. Such an interaction effect leads to H4: gender and
ethnicity moderate the relationship between cleanliness-related issues and the
recycling behavior. This is because the different races have their own beliefs,
cultures and traditions in relation to recycling. Malays, for sure, expect
their females to do the recycling based on their duty as housewives and the
expectations of the family is that the mothers doe all the domestic work from
dawn to late night. The responsibility on recycling is given to the females
especially the mothers. Following their mothers’ practice, female youths tend
to recycle more than male youths.
1.5. Hypotheses of the Study
Based on
the theoretical framework of the study, the following hypotheses are
formulated:
H1: There
is a positive relationship between cleanliness-related issues and the recycling
behavior among youths.
H2:
Gender moderates the relationship between cleanliness-related issues and the
recycling behavior.
H3: Ethnicity
moderates the relationship between cleanliness-related issues and the recycling
behavior.
H4:
Gender and ethnicity moderate the relationship between cleanliness-related
issues and the recycling behavior.
2.
METHODOLOGY
The study
employs the quantitative research design using the survey questionnaire as its
instrument for data collection. A total of 303 respondents are used in the
analysis of the study. The study was conducted in October 2015 among youths in
Kuala Lumpur using the simple random sampling technique.
Cleanliness-related
is measured against 10 items using a 5-point Likert scale where 1=strongly
disagree, 2=disagree, 3=slightly agree, 4=agree, and 5=strongly agree. The
example of such items is “Recycling is important to maintain cleanliness”. The
items are found to be reliable with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.871. Similarly, the
recycling behavior is also measured using a 5-point Likert scale where
1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=slightly agree, 4=agree, and 5=strongly
agree. The recycling behavior scale is also reliable with Cronbach’s alpha of
0.931. The items include “I separate the recycle waste at the designated place”.
The collected data are analyzed using a General Linear
Model for ANOVA to measure the gender and ethnicity interaction effect while
controlling the relationship between cleanliness-related issues and the
recycling behavior.
3.
FINDINGS
When analyzed using the General Linear Model for the main and the interaction effects of gender and ethnicity on the relationship between cleanliness-related issues and the recycling behavior (Table 2), results show that the cleanliness-related issues can explained for 42.2% on the recycling behavior. Females (M=3.795, SD=0.982) recycle more than males (M=3.313, SD=1.001) and the difference is significant (F=4.379, p=.037) with a contribution of 1.5% on the recycling behavior. Therefore, H2 is supported.
In terms of ethnicity, the Malays (M=3.609, SD=1.017), Chinese (M=3.332, SD=0.934) and Indians (M=3.191, SD=1.038) are different in their recycling behavior and the differences are significant (F=3.580, p=.029) with a contribution of 2.4%. Therefore, H3 is supported.
1.
DISCUSSION
The findings indicate that perceived cleanliness-related issues is associated with recycling behavior and such findings support the hypothesis of the study (H1). This is understandable since knowledge on cleanliness and the beliefs; cultures and traditions inherited enhance the recycling behavior as cleanliness is a part of religious practices and obligations. This is in line with the Social Learning Theory which indicates that the model influences the people around him/her. Females tend to recycle more than males and this is very much related to the responsibility shouldered by females in relation to household chores such as cleaning, recycling and keeping the house in order. This result supports the research hypothesis (H2) and the previous findings [5-9]. However, the present findings contradict the previous study by Meen-Chee and Narayanan in which it is found that regardless of gender; the Malays are found to recycle more than either the Chinese or the Indians [10]. The finding supports the hypothesis of the study (H3). On the contrary, in Penang, the Chinese tend to recycle more than either the Malays or the Indians. Nonetheless, the present study is supportive of the findings done by Mutang, Haron and Omran [7,8]. Since the previous study does not imply on the interaction effect on gender and ethnicity, hence the present study contributes to the body of knowledge when involving the interaction effect of gender and ethnicity; thus, the hypothesis of the study is also supported (H4).
1.
CONCLUSION
Based on
303 respondents residing in Kuala Lumpur, it can be concluded that the
perceived cleanliness-related issues influence the recycling behavior. Females
recycle more than males and Malays tend to recycle more than the Chinese and
Indians. The gap between Indian females is wider than the Indian males, but not
so for the Malay females and males. Similarly, the difference between Chinese
males and females is slight. Surprisingly, Chinese females tend to recycle less
than their male counterparts.
The
research is not without its limitations. The respondents are limited to youths
residing in Kuala Lumpur whose ages age less than 40 years old. Some may not
have their own family yet; hence, the recycling behavior is thought to be done
by the municipality of their residence. Therefore, future research should
include the range of residences, not limited to the young generation.
2.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Izzah Harrith,
Noor Khairin Nawwarah Khalid, Muhammad Shawal Abdul Rashid, Norjasmin Ithnin
and Bader Alaklouk for their contributions to the study.
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